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Peter Hynes brimmed with impatience last winter as he mixed an off-white powder the consistency of flour into

The brain’s appetite control centre is different in the brains of people who are overweight or live with obesity, a new study suggests. The researchers said their findings add further evidence to the relevance of brain structure to weight and food consumption. Current estimates suggest that more than 1.9 billion people worldwide are either overweight or obese. And, according to the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities, almost two-thirds of adults in the UK are overweight or living with obesity. This increases the risk of developing health issues like type 2 diabetes, heart disease and stroke, cancer and poorer mental health. The last two decades have given us important insights about appetite control and how it may be altered in obesity Professor Paul Fletcher, University of Cambridge A number of factors influence how much people eat and what they eat, including genetics, hormone regulation, and the environment they live in, researchers say. However, it is not entirely clear what happens to the brain to tell us that we are hungry or full. Past studies have shown that the hypothalamus – a small region of the brain about the size of an almond – plays an important role. Dr Stephanie Brown, from the Department of Psychiatry and Lucy Cavendish College, University of Cambridge, said: “Although we know the hypothalamus is important for determining how much we eat, we actually have very little direct information about this brain region in living humans. “That’s because it is very small and hard to make out on traditional MRI brain scans.” Professor Paul Fletcher, the study’s senior author, from the Department of Psychiatry and Clare College, Cambridge, said: “The last two decades have given us important insights about appetite control and how it may be altered in obesity. “Metabolic researchers at Cambridge have played a leading role in this. “Our hope is that, by taking this new approach to analysing brain scans in large datasets, we can further extend this work into humans, ultimately relating these subtle structural brain findings to changes in appetite and eating and generating a more comprehensive understanding of obesity.” The majority of evidence for the role of the hypothalamus in appetite regulation comes from animal studies, which indicate complex interacting pathways within the hypothalamus, with different cell populations acting together to tell us when we are hungry or full. To get around this researchers used an algorithm developed using machine learning to analyse brain scans taken from 1,351 young adults across a range of BMI scores. They looked for differences in the hypothalamus when comparing individuals who are underweight, healthy weight, overweight, or living with obesity. According to the findings, the overall volume of the hypothalamus was significantly larger in the overweight and obese groups of young adults. The researchers describe a significant relationship between volume of the hypothalamus and body mass index (BMI). The differences were most apparent in those sub-regions of the hypothalamus that control appetite through the release of hormones to balance hunger and fullness. While the exact significance of the finding is unclear, one explanation is that the change relates to inflammation, the researchers suggest. Eating a high-fat diet could trigger inflammation of our appetite control centre Dr Stephanie Brown, University of Cambridge Previous animal studies have shown that a high-fat diet can cause inflammation of the hypothalamus, which in turn prompts insulin resistance and obesity. In mice, just three days of a fat-rich diet is enough to cause this inflammation. Other studies have shown that this inflammation can raise the threshold at which animals are full – in other words, they have to eat more food than usual to feel full. Dr Brown added: “If what we see in mice is the case in people, then eating a high-fat diet could trigger inflammation of our appetite control centre. “Over time, this would change our ability to tell when we’ve eaten enough and to how our body processes blood sugar, leading us to put on weight.” More research is needed to confirm whether increased volume in the hypothalamus is a result of being overweight or whether people with larger hypothalami are predisposed to eat more in the first place. It is also possible that these two factors interact with each other, causing a feedback loop, the study published in Neuroimage: Clinical, and supported by the Bernard Wolfe Health Neuroscience Fund, Wellcome and the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, with additional funding from Alzheimer’s Research UK, suggests.

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“This is one of those quick and easy recipes that can be thrown together in next to no time,” says British-Iranian chef and author, Sabrina Ghayour. “I love this kind of dish with a green leaf salad and a simple vinaigrette on the side, but you can also cut it into smaller portions and serve it as snacks or light bites with drinks, too.” Courgette, lemon, feta and pine nut tart Serves: 4 Ingredients: 200g feta cheese, finely crumbled 250g ricotta cheese 1 tsp dried mint 1 tsp dried wild oregano 2 tsp lemon extractfinely grated zest of 1 unwaxed lemon 1 x 320g ready-rolled puff pastry sheet (about 350mm x 230mm) 1 courgette, very thinly slicedolive oil Handful of pine nuts 2 tbsp clear honey ½ tsp pul biber chilli flakes (omit if you prefer) Maldon sea salt flakes and freshly ground black pepper Method: 1. Preheat the oven to 220C (200C fan), gas mark 7. Line a large baking tray with baking paper. 2. Put the feta, ricotta, dried herbs and lemon extract and zest into a mixing bowl with a good seasoning of salt and pepper and beat together until smooth. 3. Place the puff pastry sheet on the lined tray and score a 1cm-wide border around the edges, then spread the cheese mixture across the pastry up to the scored border. 4. Lay the courgette slices, slightly overlapping, on the cheese mixture, season well with salt and pepper, and drizzle with olive oil. Scatter over the pine nuts and bake for 16-18 minutes until the pastry edges are nicely browned. 5. Remove from the oven and leave to cool slightly, then drizzle with the honey and sprinkle with the pul biber before serving. Crispy sticky harissa lamb “Cantonese crispy shredded chilli beef is one of my all-time favourite dishes,” says Ghayour. “This is very much my own creation and my nod to that wonderful combination of sweet and sticky, crispy and chewy bites of meat, but using lamb and adding peppers to the mix instead of carrots. It’s an explosion of flavour that ticks every box.” Serves: 3-4 Ingredients: 6 tbsp cornflour 350g lamb leg steaks, cut into 1cm-wide strips Vegetable oil, for frying 1 large onion, halved and thinly sliced into half moons 1 red pepper, cored, deseeded and cut into very thin strips 5 spring onions, thinly sliced from root to tip, reserve some for garnish Maldon sea salt flakes and freshly ground black pepper Steamed white rice, to serve For the sauce: 5 tbsp clear honey 4 tbsp rose harissa 3 tbsp rice vinegar 2 tbsp light soy sauce 2 tbsp cornflour Method: 1. Mix the cornflour with a very generous amount of salt and pepper in a mixing bowl, add the strips of lamb and really work the cornflour into the lamb for a minute or so. Set aside. 2. Heat a large frying pan over a medium-high heat, pour in about 2.5cm vegetable oil and bring to frying temperature (add a little bit of a lamb strip: if it sizzles immediately, the oil is hot enough). Line a plate with a double layer of kitchen paper. 3. While the oil is heating up, place a small saucepan over a medium heat, add all the sauce ingredients and whisk together until no lumps of cornflour remain and the mixture is smooth. Heat the sauce through, but do not let it bubble or burn, then remove from the heat. 4. Fry the lamb strips in batches in the hot oil for about two to three minutes, or until very crisp on the outside. Remove with a slotted spoon and transfer to the paper-lined plate to drain. 5. Heat another large frying pan over a high heat, add a drizzle of vegetable oil and stir-fry the onion and red pepper until browned a little. Add the lamb strips followed by the sauce and toss together until evenly coated with the sauce, then add the spring onions and combine well. Serve immediately scattered with the reserved spring onions and alongside steamed white rice. This needs no accompaniment. Tahini, almond and chocolate crumble cookies “I cannot tell you how satisfying these cookies are – so much so that I usually have a bag of the cookie dough balls stashed in my freezer ready for baking whenever the craving hits,” says Ghayour. “The texture is crumbly in an almost sandy way and the absolute optimum moment to enjoy them is 30 minutes out of the oven, when the cookies have cooled down, but the chocolate is still gooey.” Makes: 14 Ingredients: 125g salted butter, softened 125g soft light brown sugar 75g caster sugar ½ tsp ground cinnamon 100g tahini (use the solids and avoid the oil as much as possible) 150g plain flour ½ tsp baking powder ½ tsp bicarbonate of soda 50g blanched almonds, roughly chopped 200g dark chocolate chunks (70% cocoa solids) Method: 1. Beat the softened butter, sugars and cinnamon together in a mixing bowl until light and fluffy. Then add the tahini and mix until smooth. Next, add the flour, baking powder and bicarbonate of soda and mix until evenly combined. Finally, add the almonds and dark chocolate chunks and mix until evenly distributed. 2. Weigh the cookie dough, divide into 14 equal portions and form each into a ball. Chill in the refrigerator for at least four hours, or overnight if preferred. Once chilled, you can then freeze the cookie dough balls for later use. 3. To bake, preheat the oven to 180C (160C fan), gas mark 4. Line a baking tray with baking paper. 4. Place your dough balls, well spaced out, on the lined tray and gently flatten them (omit this stage if using frozen dough). Bake for 16 minutes (or 18 from frozen). Remove from the oven and leave to cool on the tray for 30 minutes, then enjoy. ‘Flavour’ by Sabrina Ghayour (Aster, £26). Read More Four delicious ways to use up leftover pumpkin this Halloween World Pasta Day: Nigella Lawson’s spaghetti with Marmite This speedy king prawn pasta has a supermarket secret weapon Midweek meals: Baked pasta Siciliana with meatballs How to make a classic lasagne Jack Stein’s Cornish mussels with spinach and cider

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